Appl Environ Microbiol 2009,75(9):2677–2683.PubMedCrossRef 39. Ludwig W, Schleifer KH: How quantitative is quantitative PCR with respect to cell counts? Syst Appl Microbiol 2000,23(4):556–562.PubMedCrossRef 40. Jones T, Federspiel NA, Chibana H, Dungan J, Kalman S, Magee BB, Newport G, Thorstenson YR, Agabian N, Magee PT, et al.: The diploid genome sequence of Candida albicans. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2004,101(19):7329–7334.PubMedCrossRef 41. Herrera ML, Vallor AC, Gelfond JA, Patterson TF, Wickes BL: Strain-dependent variation in 18S ribosomal DNA Copy numbers in Aspergillus fumigatus. J Clin Microbiol 2009,47(5):1325–1332.PubMedCrossRef LY3023414 order 42. Kobayashi T: see more Regulation

of ribosomal RNA gene copy number and its role in modulating genome integrity and evolutionary adaptability in yeast. Cell Mol Life Sci 2011,68(8):1395–1403.PubMedCrossRef

43. Ide S, Miyazaki T, Maki H, Kobayashi T: Abundance of ribosomal RNA gene copies maintains genome integrity. Science 2010,327(5966):693–696.PubMedCrossRef LCZ696 ic50 Competing interests The authors have declared that no competing interests exist. Authors’ contributions CML contributed to the overall study design, the acquisition, analysis, and interpretation of data, and drafting the manuscript, SK participated in the bioinformatics analysis and assay design, AGA contributed to the analysis and interpretation of data; MGD and MA both contributed to the bioinformatics portion of the analysis, PRH, YTH, JDB, LJL, and CAG contributed to the acquisition

and interpretation of laboratory data, PK conceived of the study and contributed to the overall study design, LBP contributed to the overall study design. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.”
“Background Sulfide accumulation in petroleum reservoirs is generally described as souring. Biogenic Sunitinib souring is usually due to the hydrogen sulfide that is produced by sulfate reducing bacteria (SRB), a diverse group of anaerobes that use sulfate as a final electron acceptor [1]. The souring process can be intensified when the petroleum reservoir is subjected to water flooding for secondary oil recovery [2]. Because seawater is often used in water flooding in offshore oil fields, sulfate amounts raise downhole and further stimulate SRB growth, resulting in increased risk of souring. The hydrogen sulfide can reach concentrations in the reservoir that may be toxic and/or explosive. Hence, a sulfate reducing bacteria control strategy is mandatory in the oil and gas industries. Biocorrosion is also a common process in reservoirs that are subjected to secondary oil recovery [2]. In order to avoid the risks associated with the injection of sea water, the water is pretreated before being injected. The treatment usually consists of deaeration and the addition of biocides.

In comparison to previous studies where human milk was expressed from an aseptic breast [13–20], Eltanexor cell line the current method determines the total microbiome (i.e. metagenome) ingested by the infant (from a non-sterilized breast), indicative of what an infant would receive from its mother during suckling. Because our samples were collected from a non-sterilized breast,

it could be hypothesized the human milk metagenome reported here would be similar to that of the skin microbiome. Although no reference database was freely available within MG-RAST for comparison, the metagenome of human milk is similar to previously reported skin profiles in that there is a large proportion of Staphylococcus, which is found in moist areas of skin. These moist areas, such as the antecubital fossa (inner fold of the elbow), also contain Betaproteobacteria, such as Burkholderia and Bordetella, which are present in the milk metagenome (Figure  2[32, 33]). The human milk metagenome

is also similar to drier areas of the skin such as the plantar heel, which contains Gamaproteobacteria such as Pseudomonas[32]. The human milk metagenome is, however, more similar to fecal microbiomes (as described in 16S rRNA studies) due to the large proportion of Firmicutes bacteria within human milk, which is a very minor member of the skin microbiome PD0332991 concentration (Figure  4, [32, 33]). Also, the skin of adults tends to contain a high level of Propionibacteria, which notably tends to Oxymatrine colonize the skin of cesarean-section birthed babies, whereas this genus is minimally represented in our human

milk sample using a best hit analysis of the 51 bp Illumina reads (0.2%, Additional file 2, [34, 35]). This observation suggests that mother’s milk may prove useful as a skin lotion, to re-balance the skin microbiome of C-section babies. Phylogenetic differences between human milk and feces Comparing the metagenome of human milk to that of publicly available infants’ and mothers’ fecal profiles provides insight as to how human milk may lead to proper colonization of the infant gut. When comparing the human milk metagenome to the infant fecal metagenome, there are numerous differences. For example, the metagenome of BF-infants’ feces contains a high proportion of Actinobacteria (70.4%, Figure  4), which correlates with previous studies demonstrating a high abundance of Bifidobacterium in the feces of BF-infants whereas FF-infants had a more varied microbiota [6, 31, 36]. Contigs from human milk, however, aligned mostly with Proteobacteria and Firmicutes (65.1% and 34.6%, respectively, Figure  4). At the phylum level, the present milk metagenome was less diverse than the fecal metagenomes as over 99% of the contigs were from just two phyla, Proteobacteria and Firmicutes (Figure  4). FF-infants’ feces and mothers’ feces were similar in that they both MK-4827 chemical structure contained contigs aligning to the phylum Bacteroidetes (17.6% and 20.

Four weeks after initial treatment, all mice were sacrificed to assess the effects of drug treatments. All procedures involving mice complied with the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals (National Institutes of Health). Western blotting The tissues were homogenized in 0.5 ml Hepes (50 mM, pH 7.5) containing 100 mM NaCl, 1 mM CaCl2, 1 mM dithiothreitol,

1% ethylene glycol-bis(aminoethyl ether)-tetraacetic acid 1% Triton X- 100 and proteinase inhibitors. Protein extracts were kept in ice for 30 min and then centrifuged at 14,000 4SC-202 g at 4°C for 30 min. Protein concentrations were determined using a bicinchoninic acid protein assay reagent kit. Protein samples (20 mg) were mixed with equal volumes of loading buffer (20% glycerol, 4% HDAC inhibition sodium dodecyl sulfate, and 100 mM Tris-HCl, pH 6.8) and then boiled for 5 min in the presence of β-mercaptoethanol. Proteins were separated in 8% sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gels at 100 V for 2 h and then electrotransferred to nitrocellulose membranes at 270 mA for 2 h. Membranes were blocked with 5% non-fat dry milk in PBS with 0.1% Tween 20 for 1 h at room temperature. Then, membranes were incubated with anti- HIF-1α (1:500) overnight at 4°C

and finally with a horseradish peroxidase-conjugated anti-mouse IgG for 1 h at room check details temperature after washing with TBS containing 0.1% Tween 20. Proteins were visualized by enhanced chemiluminescence reagents after washing. Protein expression was semi-quantified using an image analysis system. CD34-PAS dual staining Four micrometer paraffin sections were routinely deparaffinized and dehydrated. First, CD34 immunohistochemical staining was applied to the sections. Endogenous peroxidase activity was blocked with

3% hydrogen peroxide in 50% methanol for 10 min at room temperature. Sections were rehydrated and washed with PBS and then pretreated with citrate buffer (0.01 M citric acid, pH 6.0) for 20 Tacrolimus (FK506) min at 100°C in a microwave oven. Non-specific binding sites were blocked with 2% normal goat serum in PBS for 20 min at 37°C. Sections were then incubated overnight at 4°C with anti-CD34 at a 1:200 dilution. Then, sections were rinsed with PBS and incubated with biotinylated goat anti-mouse IgG for 20 min at 37°C, followed by incubation with 3,3′-diaminobenzidine(DAB) chromogen for 10 min at room temperature. Sections were then rinsed with water for 1 min to stop the DAB-staining reaction. Formalin and melanin granules were then removed using the methods mentioned above. Finally, sections were treated with 0.5% periodic acid solution for 10 min and rinsed with distilled water for 2-3 min. In a dark chamber, sections were treated with Schiff solution for 15-30 min. After rinsing with distilled water, sections were counterstained with hematoxylin [9].

Infect Immun 2005, 73:3137–3146.ATPase inhibitor CrossRefPubMed 26. Floderus E, Linder LE, Sund ML: Arginine catabolism by strains of oral streptococci.

APMIS 1990, 98:1045–1052.CrossRefPubMed 27. Winterhoff N, Goethe R, Gruening selleck products P, Rohde M, Kalisz H, Smith HE, Valentin-Weigand P: Identification and characterization of two temperature-induced surface-associated proteins of Streptococcus suis with high homologies to members of the arginine deiminase system of Streptococcus pyogenes. J Bacteriol 2002, 184:6768–6776.CrossRefPubMed 28. Alam SI, Bansod S, Singh L: Immunization against Clostridium perfringens cells elicits protection against Clostridium tetani in mouse model: identification of cross-reactive proteins using proteomic methodologies. BMC Microbiol 2008, 8:194.CrossRefPubMed 29. Walz A, Mujer CV, Connolly JP, Alefantis T, Chafin R, Dake C, Whittington J, Kumar Cell Cycle inhibitor SP, Khan AS, DelVecchio VG:Bacillus anthracis secretome

time course under host-simulated conditions and identification of immunogenic proteins. Proteome Science 2007, 5:11.CrossRefPubMed 30. Kulkarni RR, Parreira VR, Sharif S, Prescott JF:Clostridium perfringens antigens recognized by broiler chickens immune to necrotic entritis. Clin Vac Immunol 2006, 13:1358–1362.CrossRef 31. Bersen FS, Karlsen OA, Murrell JC, Jensen HB: Multiple peptide forms observed in two-dimensional gels of Methylococcus capsulatus (Bath) are generated during the separation process. Electrophoresis 2003, 24:757–761.CrossRef 32. Sarioglu H, Lottspeich F, Walk T, Jung G, Eckerskorn C: Deamidation as a widespread phenomenon in two-dimensional polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of human blood plasma proteins. Electrophoresis 2000, 21:2209–2218.CrossRefPubMed 33. Ling E, Feldman G, Portnoi M, Dagan R, Endonuclease Overweg K, Mulholland F, Chalifa-Caspi V, Wells J, Mizrachi-Nebenzahl Y: Glycolytic enzymes associated with the cell surface of Streptococcus pneumoniae are antigenic in humans

and elicit protective immune responses in the mouse. Clin Exp Immunol 2004, 138:290–298.CrossRefPubMed 34. Lee KW, Thakur A, Karim AM, LoVerde PT: Immune response to Schistosoma mansoni phosphoglycerate kinase during natural and experimental infection: identification of a schistosome-specific B-cell epitope. Infect Immun 1995, 63:4307–4311.PubMed 35. Banu S, Ohtani K, Yaguchi H, Swe T, Cole ST, Hayashi H, Shimizu T: Identification of novel VirR/VirS-regulated genes in Clostridium perfringens. Mol Microbiol 2000, 35:854–864.CrossRefPubMed 36. Bukau B, Horwich AL: The Hsp70 and Hsp60 chaperone machines. Cell 1998, 92:351–366.CrossRefPubMed 37. Severin A, Nickbarg E, Wooters J, Quazi SA, Matsuka YV, Murphy E, Moutsatsos IK, Zagursky RJ, Olmsted SB: Proteomic analysis and identification of Streptococcus pyogenes surface-associated proteins. J Bact 2007, 189:1514–1522.CrossRefPubMed 38.

The blank experiment result is also shown. Generally, h+, SB525334 research buy ·OH, ·O2, and H2O2 are thought to be the main active species responsible for the dye degradation [31]. It is known that ethanol is a scavenger for · OH, and KI is a scavenger for both · OH and h+ [32, 33]. By investigating the effect of ethanol and KI on the photocatalytic efficiency of the composites toward the AO7 degradation, we can clarify the role of h+ and · OH in the photocatalysis. The role of · O2 and H2O2, which are derived from the reaction between dissolved O2 and photogenerated e-, on the dye degradation can be examined by investigating the effect of N2 on the photocatalytic

efficiency since the dissolved O2 can be removed from the solution by the N2-purging procedure. Figure 8 shows the effect of N2 (bubbled at a rate of 0.1 L min-1), ethanol (10% by volume), and KI (2 × 10-3 mol L-1) on the degradation percentage of AO7 after 6 h of photocatalysis. It is demonstrated that when adding ethanol to the reaction solution, the photocatalytic degradation

of AO7 undergoes a substantial decrease, from approximately 88% under normal condition to approximately 40% on addition of ethanol. This suggests that · OH radical is an important active species responsible for the dye degradation. Figure 7 provides direct evidence showing the generation of · OH radicals over the irradiated SrTiO3-graphene composites. The addition of KI to the reaction solution results in a higher suppression of the photocatalytic efficiency compared to the addition NVP-HSP990 clinical trial of ethanol, where only 16% of AO7 is caused to be degraded, indicating that the photogenerated h+ also plays a role in the degradation of AO7. Idoxuridine In addition, the photocatalytic efficiency decreases slightly under N2-purging condition, implying

comparatively minor role of · O2 and/or H2O2 for the dye degradation. Figure 8 Effects of N 2 , ethanol, and KI on the degradation percentage of AO7 over SrTiO 3 -graphene(7.5%) composites. The irradiation time is 6 h. In order to understand the photocatalytic mechanism of semiconductor-based photocatalysts, it is essential to determine their energy-band potentials since the redox ability of photogenerated carriers is associated with energy-band potentials of photocatalysts. The conduction band and valence band potentials of SrTiO3 can be calculated using the following ARRY-438162 cost relation [34]: (1) where X is the absolute electronegativity of SrTiO3 (defined as the arithmetic mean of the electron affinity and the first ionization of the constituent atoms) and estimated to be 5.34 eV according to the data reported in the literature [35, 36], E e is the energy of free electrons on the hydrogen scale (4.5 eV), and E g is the bandgap energy of SrTiO3 (3.35 eV). The conduction band and valence band potentials of SrTiO3 vs. normal hydrogen electrode (NHE) are therefore calculated to be E CB = -0.84 V and E VB = +2.51 V, respectively.

In the present study, we transducted recombinant adenoviral vectors encoding HA117

or MDR1 into breast cancer cell line 4T1 to investigate the MDR mechanism of HA117 and to perform a comparative study between HA117 and MDR1 in a solid tumor cell line. Here, we transducted adenoviral vectors containing the GFP and HA117 genes or the GFP and MDR1 genes into 4T1 cells to generate the transductants 4T1/HA117 and 4T1/MDR1. The transduction efficiency and MOI were analyzed by fluorescence microscope Proteases inhibitor and flow cytometry. Our results showed that the efficiency of transduction in 4T1 cells increased with increased concentration of the adenovirus; however, the number of dead cells increased when the MOI exceeded 50. Therefore, an MOI = 50 was chosen for further experiments. We found that transduction of 4T1 cells with HA117 or MDR1 significantly increased the transcription levels of both genes. We also evaluated the sensitivity of stable transductants to P-gp substrate (ADM, VCR, Taxol) and non-substrate (BLM) drugs. The results of the MTT assay revealed that MDR to P-gp substrate drugs was significantly enhanced in HA117- and MDR1-expressing cells when compared to their respective controls. There were no statistically significant

differences in the IC50 or the RI of ADM, VCR, and Taxol between 4T1/HA117 and 4T1/MDR1 cells (P > 0.05), which indicates that the multidrug resistance strength of HA117 is similar to that of MDR1. It is clear that HA117 is a strong multidrug resistant novel gene and much importance should be given to it. In addition, the chemo-sensitivity Oxalosuccinic acid of MDR1 transductants Selleck Defactinib to the P-gp non-substrate drug BLM remained unchanged but decreased in HA117 transductants. This result is consistent with the results of the DNR efflux assay which demonstrated that the differences in the DNR fluorescence intensity between 4T1/HA117 and 4T1 cells were not statistically significant (P > 0.05), whereas the differences between 4T1/MDR1 and 4T1 cells were significantly significant (P < 0.05). These results suggest that HA117 has no drug-excretion

function and that it may not generate MDR in breast cancer cells using the same mechanism as MDR1. So far, the specific mechanism by which HA117 promotes MDR is still unclear. Therefore, additional studies are required to determine the exact mechanism of MDR of HA117 including its association with the prognosis of AML and whether it can promote drug resistance in tumor cells in vivo. Conclusions Our study confirms that transduction of HA117- or MDR1-expressing recombinant adenoviruses into breast cancer cells can increase the transcription of these genes and confer the breast cancer cells drug resistance. Moreover, the drug resistance of HA117 is similar to that of MDR1, which makes it clear that HA117 is a strong multidrug resistance related novel gene. Our results also show that HA117-induced MDR does not MDV3100 datasheet involve an increase in the efflux of cytotoxic compounds out of the cells.

Evid Based

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boninens. It might represent novel species or even new genera. Primary screening of taxol-producing fungi based on molecular marker Molecular marker based screening is a rapid and efficient alternative to find taxol-producing endophytic microbes in contrast to the traditional screening method [11, 17]. This method is not dependent on the production of paclitaxel and can indicate the presence of some required genes for taxol biosynthesis in the microbial genome. In yew trees, taxol biosynthesis involves 19 enzymatic steps from the universal diterpenoid learn more precursor geranylgeranyl diphosphate (GGPP) by the plastidial methyl erythritol phosphate pathway [23]. We thus chose ts (involved in formation

of the taxane skeleton), dbat (involved in baccatin III formation), https://www.selleckchem.com/products/kpt-330.html and bapt (involved in phenylpropanoyl side chain formation at C13), three key genes in taxol biosynthesis, as a primary screening to identify

taxol-producing fungi. All 11 fungal isolates with distinctive genotype separated from T. media were consecutively screened for the presence of ts, dbat, and bapt genes. Three fungi (strains HAA11, HBA29, and TA67) had positive hits of ts and dbat. The ts and dbat genes are essential for taxol biosynthesis but not diagnostic because taxol precursor baccatin III producers also have ts and dbat. Thus, the 3 fungi were screened for the presence of bapt. Interestingly, all these 3 fungi had approximately 530 bp fragments of bapt gene (Figure 5), suggesting that all of them may produce taxol. Currently, only ts, dbat, and bapt genes Fedratinib have been used as molecular probes for the primary screening of taxol producing microorganisms [16, 17], thus designing suitable degenerate primers for amplification of more target genes, e.g., the final acylation step in taxol biosynthesis, taxoid C13-side-chain N-benzoyltransferase (DBTNBT), may be a better option

for screening. Figure 5 PCR analysis for the presence of bapt in endophytic fungi from T. media . Ladder M: DS2000 DNA marker (Dongsheng Biotech Ltd, China); Lane 1–3, the PCR product of strains HAA11, HBA29, and TA67. Identification of fungal taxol We screened the extracts of the 3 representative species Guignardia mangiferae HAA11, Fusarium proliferatum HBA29, and Colletotrichum gloeosporioides TA67 with positive results in the primary C-X-C chemokine receptor type 7 (CXCR-7) screening to detect fungal taxol by high performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS). The HPLC peak positions and peak shapes of the 3 representative species from the different genera were identical to that of standard taxol (retention time = 21.02±0.03 min), indicating the 3 distinct fungi may produce taxol. Further convincing evidence for the identity of the fungal taxol was obtained by high resolution MS (Figure 6). Characteristically, the authentic taxol yielded an [M-H]- peak at m/z 852.32 and an [M+COOH]- peak at m/z 898.32.

A Simpson’s diversity of 0.9813 was calculated for this study using the API 20NE results [30]. Figure 1 Cluster analysis of API 20NE results. B: Biotype 1 to 35- numbers

assigned to API 20NE profile, isolates belonging to each buy RXDX-101 biotype can be seen in Table 1. Scale is a measure of the phenotypic relatedness of isolates. Genotypic characterisation Four different DNA-based typing methods (ISR and fliC gene sequencing, RAPD-PCR and BOX-PCR) were used to compare the isolates at a molecular level. With the analysis of the 16S-23S rDNA ISR a PCR product of approximately 860 bp was obtained for all isolates indicating that the spacer region is highly similar in length in all isolates (data not shown). Sequencing of the ISR of 19 isolates identified phenotypically as R. pickettii, and the type strain of R. insidiosa was Selleckchem AZD5363 carried out.

The sequence of several isolates indicated that these were more closely related to R. insidiosa than to R. pickettii sharing greater homology with the R. insidiosa AZD6244 concentration type strain confirming the results obtained from the species-specific PCR reaction (Figure 2a). The ISR comprised a length of 513bp for R. pickettii and 515bp for R. insidiosa. The sequence similarity of the R. pickettii isolates compared to the R. pickettii type strain LMG5942 ranged from 98-100% (Figure 2a) and for all R. insidiosa isolates it was 95% (Figure 2a). All ISR sequences had a GC content of ~52.5%. The Ralstonia ISR spacer region contains two tRNA genes: tRNAIle and tRNAAla comprising 77 and 78 bp respectively. This is a common feature of the ISR in rrn operons in Gram-negative bacteria [45] including R. pickettii [46]. The order buy Sirolimus observed for sequences generated from our Ralstonia isolates was 16S rRNA – tRNAIle – tRNAAla -23S rRNA. The nucleotide sequences of tRNAIle were identical in all isolates and the tRNAAla gene differed by one nucleotide between R. pickettii and R. insidiosa in the isolates studied. The phylogenetic tree analysis in Figure 2a, supports the positioning of R. pickettii and R. insidiosa as two separate groups (bootstrap values of 91%), with B. cepacia as

an out-group. The isolates identified as R. pickettii themselves divide into two different groups (bootstrap value of 99%). However the division into groups did not correlate to clinical or environmental association or indeed on their isolation location. Figure 2 Phylogenetic trees. A) Phylogenetic tree of R. pickettii and R. insidiosa 16S-23S ISR of nineteen sequenced isolates and sequence data available on the Genbank database. The tree was rooted with the ISR of Ralstonia solanacearum (Genbank Accession No AJ277280), Cupriavidus necator (AJ783978) and Burkholderia cepacia (L28154). B) Phylogenetic tree of R. pickettii and R. insidiosa fliC genes of nineteen sequenced isolates and sequence data available on the Genbank database. The tree was rooted with the fliC of Burkholderia cepacia (L28154).

In 16S rRNA gene libraries the shared OTUs between three soils increased significantly on decreasing the similarity cut-off. This pattern was also evident from the cbbL-gene sequence analysis. The rarefaction curve of form IC cbbL-gene sequences

(distance = 0.05) did not reach an asymptote in AS clone library whereas rarefaction curves reached near saturation in SS1 & SS2 clone libraries (Additional file 6: Figure S4a). Rarefaction curves VX-680 for 16S rRNA gene libraries reached near an asymptote for SS1 and SS2 saline soils at the estimated phylum level 80% (Additional file 6: Figure S4b). The agricultural soil gene library represented non asymptotic curve at phylum level (80%) as well as at the species level (98%) similarity cut-off. In general, the bacterial species richness in agricultural soil was greater than saline soils as indicated by the

inclines in rarefaction curves. Table 2 Biodiversity and predicted richness of the cbbL and 16S rRNA gene sequences Genes No of clones Coverage (%) Evenness(J) Shannon Weiner (H) Simpson (1-D) Sobs1(OTU) Selleckchem Crenolanib Chao ACE No of Singletons cbbL form IC                   AS 141 83 0.92 3.7 0.98 58 71.8 87.2 24 SS1 99 91 0.92 3.2 0.96 32 34.3 37.6 8 SS2 103 91 0.94 3.5 0.97 40 43.6 43.8 9 cbbL form IA                   SS2 28 82 0.58 1.2 0.55 8 11.3 16.8 5 16S rRNA                   AS 147 33 0.92 4.3 0.98 109 584.3 4626.3 98 SS1 97 56 0.92 3.7 0.97 55 206.5 553.5 41 SS2 85 36 0.93 3.9 0.97 63 311.5 1278.9 53 1OTUs for cbbL-gene clone libraries were determined at a 0.05 distance Liothyronine Sodium cut-off and OTUs for 16S rRNA clone libraries were determined at a 0.02 cut-off using the MOTHUR program. The Coverage, Shannon-Weiner (H), Simpson (1-D), Evenness (J) indices and Chao & ACE richness estimators were calculated using the OTU data. The lack of substantial overlap between soil clone

libraries suggests that bacterial communities were unique to each soil habitat. This observation was statistically supported by using LIBSHUFF (P = 0.001 for the average pairwise comparison for three sites), suggested that the bacterial communities retrieved from cbbL and 16S rRNA analysis were significantly different from one another across the sites (Additional file 7: Figure S5). The difference between homologous and heterologous coverage curves was determined by distribution of ΔC as a function of check details evolutionary distance. Our results showed significant difference between libraries with considerable ΔC values at D below 0.2 (Additional file 7: Figure S5). This result suggests that differences were between closely related sequences. This conclusion was also supported by the phylogenetic trees in which the sequences from different clone libraries often group near each other but were rarely identical. We employed phylogenetic tree based comparisons, the UniFrac metric, and phylogenetic P-test to cbbL and 16S rRNA clone libraries.