This investigation of near-shore copepods in the Gulf of Gdańsk indicates that the infestation may relate to different developmental stages. Epibiosis and parasitism, to varying

degrees, were observed on adult organisms (females, males), juveniles (copepodites) and larval (nauplii) stages. All of the infestations detected on Copepoda occurred mainly on the prosome including the cephalosome, but rarely on the urosome. Usually up to 13 of the animal body surface was overgrown with organisms; only in a few cases did they cover more than 12 of the body area. The epizoic protozoans, Peritricha type II, were found for the first time on copepods belonging to Harpacticoida (Figure 1F). These organisms were observed twice in June and July 2006 at the station GKT137831 cost located near the mouth of the Vistula (Sw3 – 54°23.2′N, 18°58.0°E, 20–10 m depth) at respective densities of 64 and 7 indiv. m− 3. They constituted 0.22% of all harpacticoids. Representatives of Cladocera (Bosmina sp.) ( Figure 1B) infected by Ellobiopsis were noted in August 2006 at the Sopot 4 station (So4 – 54°30.7′N, 18°46.0′E, 30–20 m depth) at a density of 14 indiv. m− 3, which constituted 2.9% of the total population. The youngest Cirripedia, nauplii, ( Figure 1C) with the same parasite were found in September

at the Sopot 1 station (So1 – 54°27.0′N, 18°34.8′E, 5–0 m depth) at an abundance of 4 indiv. m− 3 – these organisms represented 0.2% of the population. Eutrophication is a significant problem in the Baltic Sea (Schiewer 2008). The Gulf of Gdańsk is Epigenetic inhibitor one of the most seriously polluted areas of the Baltic Sea and is particularly threatened

by environmental degradation. The physicochemical conditions of this basin are determined by both natural and anthropogenic factors. The mixing of waters of the gulf with seawaters occurs on a very limited scale; this results in a consistently high level of pollution. The gradually worsening water pollution in this basin has led to serious biological changes (Sobol & Szumilas 1994). Among the zooplankton, the dominance of Copepoda of the genus Acartia, mainly A. bifilosa and A. tonsa ( Bielecka TCL et al., 2000, Żmijewska et al., 2000, Józefczuk et al., 2003 and Mudrak and Żmijewska, 2007), and an increase in the numbers of Protozoa, free-living and colonial epibionts that grow on Copepoda ( Wiktor, 1993 and Wiktor and Krajewska-Sołtys, 1994), have been observed. According to Hirche (1974), the large-scale occurrence of protozoan colonies on Calanoida (Eurytemora affinis and Acartia tonsa) was the result of strong, progressive eutrophication. Wiktor (1993) considered that one reason for epibiosis and parasitism on copepods was the increasing pollution load and the increase in the organic matter content, hence the large-scale proliferation of Protozoa, organisms with a high metabolic rate.

Meigs et al. [34] reported that activated

G proteins inhibit cadherin functions such as cell adhesion and that the expression of constitutively active G proteins buy Forskolin promoted breast cancer cell migration in a wound healing assay. Second, B1 receptors can induce cell migration via β-arrestin proteins which are recruited to the plasma membrane to participate in many G protein-coupled receptor-regulated signal transduction events [41]. Finally, B1 receptors could regulate cancer cell movement via activation of matrix metalloproteinases, which promote degradation of the extracellular matrix, an early event in cell migration and metastasis [12] and [26]. In summary, our results showed that a novel selective antagonist of the bradykinin B1 receptor, R-954 strongly inhibited Ehrlich tumor growth and increased survival in rats and mice. The inhibitory effects were compared with that of vincristine and the mechanism of action is discussed. Since local tumor control characterized by total tumor regression (complete response) and growth delay (partial response) coupled with normal tissue toxicity (systemic toxicity) determine therapeutic efficacy of any treatment regimen, all therapeutic strategies need to be evaluated from both aspects. Many of

the chemotherapeutic strategies using single or a combination of anticancer agents could show good local tumor control but the therapeutic efficacy is often compromised by tissue toxicity which reduced the cure i.e. the disease (tumor) free survival. The excellent antitumor efficacy and absence of toxicity of R-954 suggest that it might be the prototype of a novel antitumor drug. This work was supported by buy Venetoclax grants from CNPq, FAPERJ, and CAPES (fellowship

to NMG). “
“Peptides may be constituents of larger proteins, in which case they are responsible for molecular recognition and biological activities, or they may be biosynthesized for important roles in many physiological processes, acting as neurotransmitters, hormones, toxins, antibiotics, and defensins [43]. Peptides in general target a wide variety of protein receptors at the level of biological membranes and may interact with the phospholipids of the plasma/organelle membranes and/or with cytosolic proteins, which may regulate their activities. Peptides are used as toxins in animal venom as part of the chemical Ergoloid weapons arsenal for predation and/or defense purposes, and they can even be used to protect the host from infections by pathogens [42]. These peptides are directed against a wide range of pharmacological targets, and they can induce pain, inflammation, blood pressure changes, heart arrhythmia, and neurotoxicity, among other toxic actions [12]. Many of the peptides from animal toxic secretions seem to have evolved convergently with their cellular and molecular targets to optimize their effects, making them highly selective ligands for specific types of receptors [56].

In addition to examining human ES cells, several groups have analyzed iPSCs for X chromosome state and have generated seemingly conflicting results. Some groups report reactivation of the X chromosome in iPSCs (XaXa) [31, 32 and 33] while others

show that the X chromosome remains inactive (XaXi) [29 and 34]. Interestingly, there are reports on the find more variability in XCI (same reprogramming method leading to multiple states; single clone containing cells of different states) suggesting that the variability is biologically, not methodologically, based [33 and 35]. These differences again raise questions about the suitability of these cell and their byproducts in clinical settings and suggests a need for careful selleck inhibitor characterization of these cells and their properties (Figure 1). In spite of these advances,

studies have not yet documented an ability to control the X chromosome state in cells, especially iPSCs. However, recent work in this area has provided some exciting insights. A group let by Shinya Yamanaka was able to change culture conditions to affect the outcome of reprogramming. By culturing fibroblasts on SNL feeders, which produce high levels of leukemia inhibitory factor, Tomoda et al. were able to produced human iPSCs that were characterized by X chromosome reactivation [ 36••]. Human iPSCs produced in this manner reactivated XIST upon differentiation and iPSCs derived under other conditions and subsequently moved to SNL feeders could be coaxed to reactivate the inactive X chromosome. Interestingly, the SNL feeders provide additional factors other than increased LIF, as rLIF alone only caused biallelic expression of a subset of X chromosome genes compared to those cells grown on the SNL feeders. Supporting their work, many other groups have reported the effects of

culture conditions on ES cell XCI state suggesting that different conditions could also control XCI in iPSCs [ 30•, 37 and 38]. This system provides an exciting opportunity Methocarbamol to understand the human biology of XCI changes as a proportion of cells can be forced to switch between XaXa and XaXi states. Taken together, it is important to determine what constitutes an ideal state of human pluripotent cells, but it is not as easy as deciding on two active X chromosomes or one. How these states are reached is also important: some human iPSCs with two active X chromosomes are due to erosion of XCI and have poor differentiation ability [29], while pluripotent cells can also be converted under defined conditions to replicate the pluripotency state found in mouse ES cells including a reactivated X chromosome [30•].

A final wash was followed by detection with TMBM substrate (Moss Inc.). The antibodies were also directly compared using a multiscreen apparatus (Mini-PROTEAN II, Bio-Rad). For the described immunoassays, different capture antibodies were utilized (Table 1 and supplementary Table 1). Monoclonal antibodies were generated in mice toward find more antigens 1 and 2 (Fig. 3A) and obtained from Atlas Antibodies AB, Sweden. The polyclonal detection antibody AF2489 (RnD Systems) was labeled with biotin (NHS-PEG4Biotin, Pierce) at a 50-fold molar excess over 2 h at 4 °C and stored after adding Tris-HCl (pH 8.0) at a 250-fold molar excess. All anti-CNDP1 antibodies

were epitope mapped on bead arrays using 15-mer peptides with a 10 residue overlap spanning CNDP1 antigens 1 and 2 (Fig. 3A) as described previously [14]. For Alfa-2 macroglobulin, antibodies and protein standard were used from a kit (DY1913, RnD Systems). Antibodies were coupled to magnetic carboxylated beads (MagPlex, Luminex Corp.) according to the manufacturers protocol and as described previously [5]. The coupling efficiency for

each antibody was determined via R-phycoerythrin-labeled anti-rabbit (Jackson ImmunoResearch Laboratories), Alexa Flour 555-labeled anti-goat (Invitrogen) and R-phycoerythrin-labeled anti-mouse (Moss Inc.) IgG antibodies. Bead arrays were then created by combing equal amounts of beads, where each population of a distinct color-code and carrying a particular antibody. Plasma samples were thawed at RT, centrifuged for 10 min Selleckchem ZD1839 at 3000 rpm, and transferred into a microtiter plate (Abgene) according to a designed filipin layout. The plates were centrifuged (1 min at 3000 rpm) and samples were diluted 1:10

in 1× PBS in 96-well microtiter plates with a liquid handler (TECAN, Freedom Evo 150). Samples were diluted 50× in assay buffer composed of 0.5% (w/v) polyvinyl alcohol and 0.8% (w/v) polyvinylpyrrolidone in 0.1% casein (all Sigma) in PBS supplemented with 0.5 mg/ml rabbit IgG (Bethyl Laboratories). The samples were treated in a thermocycler at 56 °C for 30 min and 23 °C for 15 min. Then, 45 μl was combined with 5 μl of a bead array in 384-well flat-bottomed half-area microtiter plates (Greiner), and incubation took place O/N on a shaker at RT and 650 rpm. Beads were washed on a magnet 3× with 100 μl of PBST (1× PBS, pH 7.4, 0.1% Tween20) using a plate washer (EL406, BioTek). This was followed by 1 h with 50 μl of 0.1 μg/ml labeled detection antibody CAB-1 (RnD Systems), 3× washing, 10 min with a solution containing 0.1% paraformaldehyde in PBS. Beads were washed again, and 50 μl of 0.5 μg/ml R-phycoerythrin-labeled streptavidin (Invitrogen) in PBST was added and incubated for 20 min. Finally, beads were washed and measured in 60 μl of PBST using a dedicated instrument (FlexMap3D, Luminex Corp.). Limits of detection were determined for both sample and antigen dilutions.

On the

basis of the increases in CTX after discontinuation of BPs, an adequate drug holiday before dentoalveolar surgery in at-risk patients taking BPs has been recommended [6] and [8]. However, this recommendation is based on the non-evidence-based assumption that biomarkers such as CTX are adequate BRONJ risk predictors. There is much evidence indicating that osteoclastic activity increases and BMD decreases on BP discontinuation, but no evidence that this has a direct relation with BRONJ development [25]. Even considering the molecular action of BPs that accumulate in the bone tissue, which are not metabolized and are released from bone very slowly with an estimated terminal half-life of 1–10 years, there is still not enough evidence to support drug holidays [13]. Most important, the lack of predictive ability of biomarkers stems check details from whether MS-275 cost they can reflect the local site-specific status of the jaw region [12]. Despite the limitations in applicability, there were a few studies which explored the use of biochemical markers to predict localized bone involvement such as mono-ostotic Paget’s disease [27] and [28]. In the same context, whether novel markers such as α-CTX and TRACP 5b can be used as new candidates for BRONJ risk assessment is yet to be proven and requires further research. Our

investigation is limited by the small sample size due to the rare prevalence of BRONJ. Properly designed prospective trials and multicenter studies with standardized BRONJ diagnostic criteria and sampling protocols are urgently needed to confirm the available data about the development mafosfamide of BRONJ and the potential utility of biomarkers. Laboratory tests with these biomarkers as BRONJ risk predictors will also be more useful when conducted before dentoalveolar surgery, rather than at the time of BRONJ

diagnosis; this timing has been a limitation of related studies to date. In conclusion, the results of this study indicate that there is insufficient evidence for the use of OC, DPD, CTX, NTX, BAP, and PTH for BRONJ risk prediction, and that additional research for investigation of new biomarker for BRONJ is necessary. This study was supported by the Ewha Global Top5 Grant 2013 of Ewha Womans University, Seoul, Korea. The authors thank Dr. Woo-Keun Lee (fellow of laboratory medicine, Ewha medical center) for his dedicated help. “
“The homeobox-containing (Hox) genes are a group of related genes that control the body plan of the embryo along the anterior–posterior (head–tail) axis. They encode a set of highly conserved transcription factors that play important roles in regional identities along the primary body and limb axes [1] and [2].

Therefore we hypothesise, in our model, that stresses at the LB and IF in the scapula have been similarly reduced by an average 22.5% in our Hpr mice (Fig. 7(A) open symbols). Using this information on altered muscle strength and weight, we can correlate the stress distribution in the scapula, and its alterations during rickets, to the evolving mineral particle nanostructure. We plotted mineral particle

alignment and degree of mineralisation versus applied stress for the oldest (10 weeks) wild type and Hpr mice in our data set. In wild type mice we observed a statistically significant (p < 0.05; Student's t-test) difference in mineral degree of orientation between two sites

where low and high stresses are expected ( Fig. 7(A)). Regions with expected increased stresses on the scapula are associated with an increased degree see more of mineral particle orientation, as well as mean mineral concentration. However, in Hpr mice, alterations in nanostructural properties are affected by the combined result of weaker skeletal BAY 80-6946 datasheet muscles and impaired mineralisation. We used the reported grip strength (per unit body weight) of murine model called Hyp homologues of X-linked hypophosphatemic rickets at the same age (10 weeks) [28] as a proxy for muscular force, and compared our experimental data (degree of orientation) with the normalised grip strength and muscle weight for wild type and Hyp mice ( Fig. 7(B)). A positive association between the two muscular parameters (grip strength and muscle weight) and the two mineralisation parameters (degree of orientation and mean mineral concentration) was observed. The grip strength, muscle weight, mineral particle degree of orientation and mineral concentration of Hyp mice were all lower than those of wild type mice. This finding suggests that abnormal changes in muscle forces in disease conditions are associated with reductions in the degree of mineral particle alignment. To demonstrate

the link between increasing muscular force and the development of nano-structural parameters requires that greater muscle strength/mass L-NAME HCl is associated with higher degree of mineral particle orientation, independent of body size variations. In this study we have demonstrated that degree of orientation, predominant orientation and mean mineral content increases with age in intramembranously ossifying bone. Several previous studies have shown a positive correlation between muscle strength and bone strength index [35] and BMD [30], [31] and [36] independent of measures of body size. However, the correlation between development of muscle strength and nano-structural parameters was not investigated.

Sabemos também que, apesar de alguma evolução positiva, Portugal continua a ter uma elevada taxa de incidência de cancro gástrico, sendo baixas as taxas de deteção de cancro precoce (cerca de 8%). Faz, neste contexto, sentido tentar conhecer a prática real da endoscopia digestiva em Portugal e correlacioná‐la com a preocupação de diagnóstico de lesões pré‐malignas. As condições pré‐malignas mais significativas são a gastrite crónica atrófica e a metaplasia intestinal, esta relacionável com a infeção pelo Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori). A longo prazo estas condições podem

evoluir para lesões displásicas pré‐cancerosas. E é no diagnóstico dessas condições pré‐malignas que a endoscopia SCH772984 price pode e deve ter um papel muito importante. Conhecer, no entanto, a realidade da prática quotidiana portuguesa é sempre uma tarefa árdua. Ainda que o panorama se esteja progressivamente a alterar para melhor, a colaboração multicêntrica continua a estar aquém daquela que poderia e deveria ser. O trabalho publicado por Miguel Areia e Mário Dinis Ribeiro, One day of upper gastrointestinal endoscopy in a southern selleck products European country 1, parte de uma ideia altamente meritória, a de tentar conhecer a nossa prática quotidiana, sendo de lamentar

a baixa taxa de participação no estudo (apenas um em cada 4 hospitais). Cabe, no entanto, aqui referir que a opção pela «fotografia» de um só dia de endoscopias, tendo sido justificada com critérios aceitáveis, é também ela própria limitativa. Há, por exemplo, hospitais mais pequenos, que concentram as endoscopias altas programadas em 2 ou 3 dias da semana (e não necessariamente no dia escolhido para esta amostra), uma vez que o peso das colonoscopias nos hospitais é cada vez maior, por razões sobejamente conhecidas. Mas o estudo tem sempre o mérito de nos sugerir reflexões que consideramos atuais e pertinentes. E de levantar perguntas e questões,

algumas das quais não são de agora. A endoscopia digestiva alta é um bom método de rastreio do cancro gástrico em doentes assintomáticos? O protocolo da realização de biopsias é uniforme e bem estabelecido? Os relatórios histológicos respondem genericamente àquilo Tobramycin que é considerado necessário? A prática da endoscopia digestiva alta em meio hospitalar reproduz aquela que é praticada em meio extra‐hospitalar? Pelo menos em países de baixa incidência é consensual que o rastreio do cancro gástrico não está indicado. Mas a vigilância de condições pré‐malignas já levanta outras questões. E, na verdade, os dados deste dia de endoscopia mostram uma elevada prevalência de condições pré‐malignas na população portuguesa estudada. Segundo as guidelines da American Society for Gastrointestinal Endoscopy (ASGE) para a vigilância das condições pré‐malignas do trato digestivo alto 2, as recomendações são as seguintes: 1.

573790/2008-6), the Fundação de Apoio ao Ensino,Pesquisa e Assistência (FAEPA, Foundation for the Support of Instruction, Research, and Treatment), the Fundação Waldemar Barnsley Pessoa (Waldemar Barnsley Pessoa Foundation), BKM120 solubility dmso and the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES, Office for the Advancement of Higher Education; scholarships to LBC and MBP). “
“Voltage-gated K+ channels (Kv) play a key role

in many neural functions, including control of generation, frequency and temporal pattern of action potentials (AP) firing (Hille, 2001 and Migliore and Shepherd, 2002). Mammalian Kv comprises four primary subfamilies of genes (Kv1, Kv2, Kv3, Kv4) (Coetzee et al., 1999), and permeates both delayed rectifier K+ currents (IK) and transient outward K+ currents (IA), the two main voltage-gated K+ currents. In CA1 pyramidal neurons IA currents, encoded by Kv1.4, Kv4.2 or Kv4.3 channels, mediate the amplitude of action potential backpropagation ( Hoffman et al., 1997) and set the threshold for long term

potentiation (LTP) induction ( Chen et al., 2006). An involvement of IA currents in Alzheimer’s disease (AD) pathology has been proposed, since it has been shown that Aβ peptide, a hallmark of AD pathology, modulates these currents ( Plant et al., 2006 and Kerrigan et al., 2008), and the expression of Kv4.2 and Kv4.3 is found increased

in the cortex and hippocampus Inhibitor Library high throughput of Aβ-treated rats ( Pan et al., 2004). Given the importance of IA currents for synaptic plasticity ( Chen et al., 2006 and Kim and Hoffman, 2008), Pyruvate dehydrogenase modulation of these currents might affect learning and memory processes. When studying ionic channels, scientists often turn to nature’s toolbox, in search of toxins and peptides with high specificity and affinity for a given channel. The venom of the Brazilian wandering spider Phoneutria nigriventer is rich in toxins that affect ionic channels and neurotransmitter release. The purified fraction 3 of Phoneutria venom (PhTx3) contains 6 toxin isoforms (Tx3-1 to -6) targeting mainly voltage-dependent calcium channels and potassium currents ( Cordeiro et al., 1993 and Gomez et al., 2002). In particular, it has been shown that the toxin Tx3-1 has inhibitory properties over IA, without affecting any other K+ currents ( Kushmerick et al., 1999). The present study investigated the effect of the Phoneutria nigriventer toxin Tx3-1 on memory of naïve mice, and compared with the other potassium channel blocker, 4-aminopyridine (4-AP). Moreover, we tested whether intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) injection of Tx3-1 rescue memory of Aβ25-35 injected mice, a recognized model of AD’s cognitive impairment. Male Swiss mice (3 month old) were used.

6% of the total recorded catch while purse seining using FADs had bycatch levels of 10% of the total catch (Marine Resources Assessment Group., 1996, Marine Resources Assessment Group., 1997, Marine Resources Assessment

Group., 1998, Marine Resources Assessment Group., 2000, Marine Resources Assessment Group., 2001 and Marine Resources Assessment Group., 2002). As with the longline fishery, bycatch was not recorded in logbooks during this period. The main bycatch species in the Chagos/BIOT purse-seine fishery were rainbow runner and pelagic triggerfish, silky shark, dolphinfish, black marlin and wahoo (Mees et al., 2009a). Catches of sharks by the purse-seine fishery were approximately 0.2% of the total catch in Chagos/BIOT waters during the period between 1995 and 2002 (Mees et al., 2003). Bycatch can have a considerable impact on ecosystem function (Lewison Selleck PCI32765 et al., 2004a), as has already been shown in the case of the loss of predatory sharks

in inshore systems (Myers et al., 2007 and Ferretti et al., 2010). Based on the numbers of individuals involved and the status of those species globally, the level of shark bycatch in Chagos/BIOT waters can be considered an issue. However, data are extremely limited and based primarily on logbook information. This reflects the situation for western Indian Ocean fisheries, where the total pelagic shark catch by all fisheries is thought to Vemurafenib in vivo be considerable but underestimated,

potentially resulting in a reduction in their abundance to critical levels and diminishing the biodiversity of this pelagic ecosystem (Romanov, 2001). In other oceanic regions, genetic research has shown that some migratory, pelagic sharks are made up of discrete populations that spend more time at preferred sites (Queiroz et al., 2005) and under certain circumstances shark populations are likely to benefit significantly from spatial closures of longline fisheries (Baum Rolziracetam et al., 2003 and Watson et al., 2009). To promote both fisheries management and marine species conservation, future bycatch research must continue to address these critical data limitations while developing novel approaches to address uncertainty (Lewison et al., 2004a). The high natural diversity and abundance of sharks has been shown to be vulnerable to even light fishing pressure (Ferretti et al., 2010) so given the large uncertainties and biases of management, it seems likely that closing Chagos/BIOT waters to all fishing will give these threatened species a ‘safe house’ that can only facilitate their recovery. In summary, bycatch is a serious conservation issue that is complex and ecosystem-wide in its effects (Lewison et al., 2004a and Harrington et al., 2005) and the bycatch from tuna fisheries in Chagos/BIOT is significant, particularly for sharks.

G. caespitosa is used as a model species in studies on the evolution of polyandry and sperm competition (e.g., Evans and Marshall, 2005, Styan et al., 2008 and McLeod and Marshall, 2009) as well as in ecotoxicological assessments ( Moran and Grant, 1993 and Ross and Bidwell, 2001). Here, we focused on among-male variation in sperm swimming responses to future ocean acidification. Following the A1FI scenario (IPCC, 2007), Rapamycin concentration we exposed sperm to seawater conditions predicted for near- (pCO2 = 970 μatm, year 2100) and far-future CO2 scenarios future (pCO2 = 1600 μatm, year 2300), and recorded impacts on the proportion

of motile sperm and their swimming speeds. Based on a previous study on individual variation in sperm swimming in sea urchins ( Schlegel et al., 2012), we hypothesized that there will be substantial variation in the responses of swimming capabilities in individual ITF2357 molecular weight sperm. Filtered seawater (FSW; 0.22 μm filtered) was aerated with a CO2/air mixture to achieve CO2 treatments. Seawater temperature and salinity (Table 1) were measured for each replicate (n = 23) using an IQ Sensor net (MIQ/T2020, WTW). Microprocessor CO2 injection units were set to maintain stable

pHNBS levels of 8.1 (controls, no CO2 added; pCO2 = 427 μatm), 7.8 (pCO2 = 971 μatm) and 7.6 (pCO2 = 1597 μatm), following the A1FI scenario ( IPCC, 2007). Total alkalinity was determined for every third replicate (n = 7) by titration (HI 3811 Alkalinity kit, Hanna Instruments), all other parameters of the CO2 system were calculated using CO2-SYS ( Lewis and Wallace, 1998) and the dissociation constants of Dickson and Millero, (1987) ( Table 1). Clumps Selleck CHIR-99021 of large G. caespitosa (tube openings of 2+mm diameter) were collected from intertidal rock platforms in Fairlight, Sydney, Australia (33°48′1′′S,

151°16′3′′E) in November and December 2011, and held in a recirculating seawater system at Macquarie University. Individuals were used in experiments within 48 h of collection. Collection of gametes followed the protocol by Kupriyanova and Havenhand, (2002). Individual G. caespitosa were carefully removed from their calcareous tubes and inspected for ripeness. Individual males, characterized by creamy white lower abdomens, were placed into separate petri dishes. Removal of the males from their tubes caused instantaneous spawning in mature individuals. Males that did not immediately release gametes were discarded. Sperm from spawning individuals were collected with Pasteur pipettes from each male, and held “dry” on ice in Eppendorf tubes (one for each individual) until immediately prior to use (within 15 min of release). A total of 23 mature males were tested. Sperm motility experiments were conducted in a temperature-controlled room at 20 ± 0.5 °C and followed established protocols (Havenhand et al., 2008, Havenhand and Schlegel, 2009 and Schlegel et al., 2012). “Dry” sperm (∼0.