The latest H5N1 epidemic occurred in Nam Dinh province between May and June 2007 (3), approximately 6 months after our study had ended. The estimated epicenter of the outbreak reported by Minh et al. (3) was in proximity to the sites where the 360 ducks were collected in the current study and, of those, four ducks tested positive in serology for the past H5N1 infection. Questionnaire-based information from the owner of each farm implied that four ducks from Nam Dinh province hatched after the previous H5N1 outbreak

(from October to December 05) had ended. The presence of anti-NS1 (15) or anti-NP/M (19) antibodies is indicative of a recent exposure of poultry to the influenza A virus. Taken Y 27632 together, these four ducks collected in Nam Dinh province had possibly been infected with H5N1 viruses in the period when obvious H5N1 outbreaks were absent. Further HI tests confirmed that the five sera that contained anti-NP/M, anti-NS1, and H5N1 subtype-specific HI and NI antibodies also inhibited PLX4032 in vivo hemagglutinating activities induced by influenza A virus subtype H5N1 isolated from a duck in northern Vietnam in 2008, suggesting that the five ducks had been infected with subtype H5N1virus strains serologically related to those prevalent

in northern Vietnam. Our hypothesis is supported by a report that ducks were the species most affected in the latest H5N1 outbreak

in northern Vietnam after progressive increases over 4 years (3). H5N1 viruses were isolated from healthy domestic ducks in studies conducted between 1999 and 2002 in China (20). Our findings indicate that domestic ducks play a pivotal role in maintaining and transmitting the virus to cause outbreaks in northern Vietnam. This article has been supported by the Program of Founding Research Centers for Emerging and Reemerging Infectious Diseases, the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports and Technology, Japan. “
“Bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMMs) treated with granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) or macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF), differentiate into GM-CSF-induced ID-8 mouse bone marrow-derived macrophages (GM-BMMs) or M-CSF-induced mouse bone marrow-derived macrophages (M-BMMs), which have an M1 or M2 profile, respectively. GM-BMMs produce large amounts of proinflammatory cytokines and mediate resistance to pathogens, whereas M-BMMs produce antiinflammatory cytokines that contribute to tissue repair and remodeling. M-BMMs stimulated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) are in an antiinflammatory state, with an IL-12lowIL-10high phenotype. However, the regulation of this process remains unclear. Klf10 belongs to the family of Krüppel-like transcription factors and was initially described as a TGF-β inducible early gene 1.