Three types of mixing can be distinguished. First there is the initial mixing of different groundwater types withdrawn over the well screen length at the ATES startup. This process determines the initial composition of the ATES water. In presence of vertical heterogeneity in hydraulic conductivity, this hydraulic conductivity will determine the contribution of the different groundwater types to the mixed ATES water. Secondly there is

a continuous inflow and replacement of a portion of the ATES water by ambient groundwater. The importance of this mixing type is determined by the regional groundwater flow rate, compared to the ATES discharge and recharge rate. Again Ixazomib supplier the hydraulic conductivity over the depth range is important because it will determine the flow paths of the inflowing ambient water. Thirdly, mixing will occur at the interface between the injected mixed water from the ATES and the surrounding groundwater during injection by dispersion processes. These processes will be especially important when there is sufficient contrast between the composition of the mixed water in the ATES and the ambient groundwater (Dinkla et al., 2012). In addition to these three types, the water balance of the ATES system is also important for mixing.

A yearly imbalace between extraction and injection will lead to some extra initial mixing each year. Based on literature, ATES may have an impact on groundwater quality in two different ways. On the one Afatinib chemical structure hand, extraction, mixing and injection of shallow groundwater with deeper groundwater over a large well screen length can have an important influence on groundwater quality. For example, mobilization of trace elements and organic carbon can be induced by changing the natural redox conditions and contaminants can be introduced in deeper pristine groundwater. The temperature changes (<15 °C) handled in current ATES systems, on the other hand, seem to have hardly any effect on the chemistry of the main chemical constituents in the groundwater. But

redox sensitivity to small changes in temperature (Prommer and Bumetanide Stuyfzand, 2005) and especially the increased mobility of arsenic observed in laboratory experiments (Bonte et al., 2013b) show that further research and monitoring are necessary. The groundwater chemistry around seven ATES installations in the northern part of Belgium (Flanders) is evaluated (Fig. 2). The selected ATES systems are located in several key aquifers, which represent major groundwater resources for the region. In Flanders, the main chemical constituents of groundwater in the cold and warm wells of all ATES systems are reported at least once a year to the environmental authorities in the context of their environmental permit.