This could be a methodological issue: patients with more severe bleeding disorders often had a longer duration

of infection, because they were generally treated and thus infected at an earlier age. The gold standard for the diagnosis of cirrhosis is a liver selleck chemicals biopsy, although sampling error is a problem. In haemophilia, there is also the issue of bleeding risk and cost of substitution therapy. Both in persons with haemophilia and others, there is a lot of interest in non-invasive methods to diagnose fibrosis and cirrhosis [10]. Cirrhosis may well be evident on ultrasound (US), if there is irregularity of the liver surface or nodularity of the liver [7], but can be missed. The most well-tested non-invasive options are FibroTest, which is a panel of five biochemical markers and FibroScan which uses transient elastography, an ultrasound-based technique,

to measure liver stiffness. In a meta-analysis of diagnostic accuracy (vs. biopsy as the gold standard), the sensitivity of FibroScan was 64% for F2-4 fibrosis and 86% for cirrhosis. For FibroTest, data were difficult to summarize because different cut-off levels were used. If sensitivity above 80% was required, specificity dropped to 40–60% [11]. FibroTest and FibroScan have been tested in haemophilia, but without comparison with liver biopsy [12–14]. When the two tests were compared with each other in haemophilia, concordance Acalabrutinib concentration was not very good in F2–3 fibrosis, but reasonable (85%) in cirrhosis 上海皓元医药股份有限公司 [12]. Non-invasive tests overcome the issue of bleeding with liver biopsy, but not completely that of costs: FibroTest is only available commercially and cannot be performed in-house and FibroScan requires investment in expensive equipment. The American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases (AASLD) does not recommend the use of

the currently available non-invasive tests instead of liver biopsy in routine clinical practice [4]. With the present options for treatment, the main question in clinical practice is whether there are signs of cirrhosis and this question can be answered by a combination of routine liver tests and a routine ultrasound in most patients. Once patients have developed cirrhosis, they are at risk for liver cancer, i.e. hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). HCC is the leading cause of death in patients with cirrhosis because of hepatitis C. In the western world, the incidence of HCC is clearly increasing because of chronic hepatitis C. In 2000, 60–70% of HCC in Europe and 50–60% in North America was related to hepatitis C [15]. In other parts of the world, the background incidence of HCC is higher because of chronic hepatitis B and exposure to toxins. In large studies, the rate of development of HCC was 3–6% per year in patients with HCV cirrhosis. In patients with advanced fibrosis, the rate is approximately half of that [16,17].