The role of infectious agents in triggering autoimmunity has been highlighted, but a relatively unexplored area is the interaction between infectious agents and commensals in disease [49]. Technological advances in the molecular analysis of the microbiota will continue

apace, but one concern may be that the current enthusiasm for pyrosequencing everything will delay progress in developing selective culture media for biologically important organisms. Meanwhile, new technological approaches to the glycobiology of the gut microbiota are needed and may eclipse microbial proteomics. Due regard will also have to be given to the other microbiota, including the viriome [50,51]. Finally, in view of the hour-glass shape of the innate immune system, the question arises as to what degree are host–diet–microbe

interactions drugable. This is uncertain, but it is clear that the microbiota is manipulable, particularly in Tofacitinib chemical structure early life, and is a rich opportunity for drug discovery. The author has been supported in part by grants from Science Sorafenib clinical trial Foundation Ireland in the form of a research centre grant, the Higher Education Authority of Ireland and the European Union. The author is a stockholder in Alimentary Health Ltd, a recipient of research grants from GlaxoSmithKline Ltd, and a consultant to the Procter and Gamble Co. The content of this manuscript Thiamine-diphosphate kinase was neither influenced nor constrained by these facts. “
“Acinetobacter baumannii has emerged as a bacterial pathogen of considerable healthcare concern. Yet, little is known about the organism’s basic biological processes and the regulatory networks that modulate expression of its virulence factors and antibiotic resistance. Using Affymetrix GeneChips®, we comprehensively defined and compared the transcriptomes of two A. baumannii strains, ATCC 17978 and 98-37-09, during exponential and stationary phase growth in Luria–Bertani (LB) medium. Results revealed that in addition to expected growth phase-associated metabolic

changes, several putative virulence factors were dramatically regulated in a growth phase-dependent manner. Because a common feature between the two most severe types of A. baumannii infection, pneumonia and septicemia, includes the organism’s dissemination to visceral organs via the circulatory system, microarray studies were expanded to define the expression properties of A. baumannii during growth in human serum. Growth in serum significantly upregulated iron acquisition systems, genes associated with epithelial cell adherence and DNA uptake, as well as numerous putative drug efflux pumps. Antibiotic susceptibility testing verified that the organism exhibits increased antibiotic tolerance when cultured in human serum, as compared to LB medium. Collectively, these studies provide researchers with a comprehensive database of A.