The authors emphasized that pH toxicity was an important limiting factor in very acid soils. Aluminum ions (Al3 +) cause severe damage to plants. The effects of Al toxicity can be classified as morphological and physiological. Morphological effects refer to symptoms on different plant parts, whereas physiological effects refer to the strong binding effect of soluble Al3 + in acid soils where it can interact with multiple sites of the cell, including the cell wall, cell membrane and cell cytosol with consequent toxic effects [28]. The first and most significant morphological symptom of Al toxicity is inhibition and reduction of root growth. It can be detected within several minutes after Al addition [29]. Aluminum limits the ability of

roots Ixazomib purchase to scavenge for nutrients and restricts the depth of penetration, resulting in a poorly developed root system, nutrient deficiencies and eventually reduced grain yields [30]. Hecht-Buchholz and Foy [31] found typical symptoms of Al toxicity on newly-emerging lateral roots of barley. Root tips were stunted and inhibited in barley varieties differing in tolerance, but the onset of symptoms in the tolerant genotype was several days later than in the sensitive genotype. Tamas et al. [32] observed that

Al treatment induced root growth inhibition and loss of cell viability Mitomycin C manufacturer in barley root cells during germination. In white clover, the number of root hairs decreased when the root was treated with Al solution. An increased Al3 + concentration caused root hairs to disappear and stunted root growth [33]. Compared Y-27632 solubility dmso with roots, symptoms of Al toxicity are not so easily identifiable on leaves [20]. One of the symptoms is nutrient deficiency, probably a result of low nutrient transport from damaged roots [28]. Phosphorus deficiency is

manifested by overall stunting, small, dark green leaves, late maturity, purpling of stems, leaves and leaf veins, and yellowing and death of leaf tips [20]. Calcium deficiency in the presence of Al can be observed as curling or rolling of young leaves and collapse of growing points or petioles [34]. Thus Al inhibition of leaf development may be a response to Al-induced stress in roots [35]. Thornton et al. [36] found that leaf size and expansion rates of honey locust seedlings were significantly lower than those in the controls. The size and thickness of leaf blades also decreased, as did the size of leaf cells in seedlings of red pepper when exposed to Al stress [37]. Physiological symptoms include severe inhibition of DNA synthesis [38], blockage of cell division [3], disjunction of cell walls, disruption of plasma membrane integrity, inhibition of signal transduction pathways, and changes in cytoskeleton structure [32]. Liu et al. [39] reported that aluminum chloride induced mitotic irregularities and extrusion of nuclear material into the cytoplasm in root tip cells of garlic. Ikeda and Tadano [40] observed alterations of root tip cells in barley treated with Al.