Table 7 Combined effects of nano-TiO 2 on various organs Exposed route Livera Spleena

Kidneya Lunga Braina Hearta Totala Percentageb Digestive tract 3/0 0/1 3/0 0/1 1/0 0/1 7/3 70 Respiratory tract 4/0 1/1 2/1 12/3 1/1 0/2 20/8 71 Intraperitoneal injection 7/2 1/1 5/1 2/2 1/0 2/1 18/7 72 Skin 1/0 1/0 1/0 1/0 0/1 0/1 4/2 67 Caudal vein 1/0 0/0 2/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 7-Cl-O-Nec1 ic50 3/0 100 Totala 16/2 3/3 13/2 15/6 3/2 2/5 52/20 – Percentageb 89 50 87 71 60 29 72 – aNumber of positive/negative studies. bPercentage of positive studies. The toxicity of nano-TiO2 from the study of different main organs Liver toxicity The liver is the main organ where exogenous chemicals are metabolized and eventually excreted. As a consequence, the liver cells are exposed to significant concentrations of these chemicals, which can result in liver dysfunction, cell injury, and even organ failure. Eighteen studies found the toxicity of Selleck DZNeP nano-TiO2 in the liver from mice or rats, in vivo. The findings from the studies [36, 46, 52] after oral exposure suggested that nano-TiO2 could induce the damage to the liver and pathologic examination showed that in the liver tissue, the hydropic degeneration of the hepatocyte around the central vein

was found, with hepatocyte disorder, superficial staining of cytoplasm osteoporosis. Tang et al. [67] investigated the liver toxicity of nano-TiO2 subsequent to the intratracheal instillation and Niclosamide indicated slight liver injury and induced oxidative stress. But no coherent results emerged, and so liver toxicity of the combined effects was calculated when exposed to nano-TiO2. The percentage of the positive studies is 89%, and it is very possible that exposure to nano-TiO2 causes a liver toxicity (Table  7). Spleen toxicity Immunotoxicology can be most simply defined as the study of the adverse effects on the immune system resulting from occupational, inadvertent, or therapeutic exposure to drugs, environmental chemicals, and, in some instances,

biological materials. Studies in animals and humans have indicated that the immune system comprises potential target organs and that damage to this system can be associated with morbidity and even mortality. In this study, the spleen was chosen for understanding immunotoxicology induced by nano-TiO2 and the contents of Ti in spleen had increased significantly compared with the control group, but in the positive studies, the number of spleen coefficients was lower than other groups by only 14%. In six studies, three results showed nano-TiO2-induced spleen toxicity by different exposure routes (Table  7). Kidney toxicity The functional integrity of the mammalian kidney is vital to the total body homeostasis, because the kidney plays a principal role in the excretion of metabolic wastes and in the regulation of extracellular fluid volume, electrolyte composition, and acid–base balance.