Historically, ARVD has been investigated with several imaging modalities; duplex ultrasonography Selleck Nivolumab (DUS), computed tomography angiography (CTA) and magnetic resonance angiography (MRA). DUS has strong positive and negative predictive values for RAS in the presence of a single renal vessel.15 Up to 10% of people, however, have a dual arterial supply. It is highly time consuming and operator dependent.16 Attempts to simplify the technique by

limited hilar analysis are insufficiently sensitive.17 CTA is well established. Although there is radiation exposure, risk of contrast induced nephropathy and potential problems interpreting images in the presence of highly calcified vessels, it is frequently used. CTA has comparable sensitivity and specificity to MRA,18 Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitor Library and in moderate renal impairment can be superior to other imaging modalities in detecting stenoses of 50–70%.19 Captopril renography is no longer routinely used, as its diagnostic value is less in CKD and bilateral disease. For some time, gadolinium enhanced MRA was seen as the investigation of choice for ARVD because of high sensitivity and specificity in detecting stenotic lesions. Without iodinated contrast or ionizing radiation, it was perceived as a safe, non-invasive

tool. Recently, gadolinium has been implicated in the development of nephrogenic systemic fibrosis (NSF), a condition involving fibrosis of the skin, joints and internal organs. Gadolinium can be found in all tissues of patients with NSF,20 but the exact causal mechanism of the disease is uncertain.21 The condition appears unique to patients on dialysis or with rapidly deteriorating renal function and coexistent inflammatory conditions.22,23 Celecoxib It is likely that free Gd3+ is responsible – it has

been found complexed to sodium-calcium-phosphate material in skin samples.24 Hyperphosphataemia, calcium and iron supplements may compete for the chelate and increase its release.25,26 A recent twin centre long-term follow up of 2053 patients (most with CKD) exposed to gadolinium (44.7% CKD3; 23.9% CKD4) did not identify any cases of NSF and concluded that NSF risk was minimal in patients with stable CKD stages 3 and 4.27 Retrospective analysis of over 1000 dialysis dependent patients who received gadolinium demonstrated that of the 312 patients receiving standard contrast (linear agents, e.g. Omniscan or Magnevist), 2.6% developed NSF. However, of the 784 patients who received lower dose high-relaxivity (cyclical agents, e.g. Dotarem) contrast, none went on the develop NSF.28 Altering protocols for imaging to include safer, more stable gadolinium compounds may therefore increase safety. ARVD has serious prognostic implications. A total of 1305 patients undergoing diagnostic coronary angiography were simultaneously screened for RAS. In all, 896 were followed up over a 4 year period, with 219 deaths in this time frame.