Antibiotics can clear most infections and have a benefit for individual patients, but because of the large number of infected people and the increasing resistance to antibiotics, a more realistic

approach is the development of a vaccine. Granted that some experts doubt the possibility of making a protective H. pylori vaccine because the natural infection persists despite the host developing a strong immune response (Blanchard & Czinn, 2000). Yet, the fact that a postinfection immune response is not able to clear an infection does not necessarily negate the possibility that preinfection immunity may prevent the acquisition of a new infection. In fact, experimental animal BTK phosphorylation data suggest that oral administration of Helicobacter-specific antibodies may be effective to prevent as well as to treat Helicobacter infection (Czinn et al., 1993; Casswall et al., 2002; Gorell & Robins-Browne, 2009). For 20 years, a number of researchers have been working toward the development of a vaccine to prevent H. pylori infection (Czinn & Nedrud, 1991). Of the various candidate antigens, the most promising is the B subunit of the urease protein (urease B), a 65-kDa protein encoded in a 1.7-kbp gene. The protein, which is exposed on the Rucaparib surface of the cell membrane, frequently

elicits an immune response (Futagami et al., 1998), and its activity (likely by counteracting the gastric acidity) is crucial for the survival of this bacterium, as shown by the fact that urease-deficient H. pylori mutants fail to colonize the gastric mucosa (Eaton et al., 1991). Ferrero et al. (1994) reported that Tideglusib immunization with urease B resulted in 25–60% protection against Helicobacter felis (the Helicobacter species that naturally infects mice) challenge, as compared with no protection with urease A. Subsequent work has shown that mice immunized with whole-cell lysate or urease B purified protein (either natural or recombinant) results in protection against infection following challenge with either H. pylori SS1 (an H. pylori strain adapted

to colonize mice) (Kleanthous et al., 1998) or H. felis (Chen et al., 1992; Michetti et al., 1994). Despite these progresses, a vaccine for H. pylori remains elusive. Immunization of mice results in a reduction but rarely an elimination of Helicobacter organisms in the stomach (Sutton et al., 2000) and the few attempts to immunize human volunteers have not resulted in adequate immunogenicity (Kreiss et al., 1996; Michetti et al., 1999; Kotloff et al., 2001). Therefore, even though urease B remains an attractive candidate, its immunogenicity has to be improved. To achieve this goal, researchers have experimented with various strong adjuvants (such as Freund’s, cholera toxin or Escherichia coli labile toxin), but due to their toxicity, they have no human application.