Following adjustment for age, EHH DNA (OR = 2.58, p = 0.04) was significantly associated with CD [10]. Studies on the detection, pathogenicity, and transmission of non-H. pylori Helicobacters in animals, including four reviews [11–14], have been published in the past year. The possibility that the oral cavity of stray cats may potentially act as a source for Helicobacter spp. transmission

was reported by Shojaee Tabrizi et al. who detected Helicobacter genus-specific DNA in PI3K inhibitor 93% of oral secretions from 43 clinically healthy cats in Iran. Mixed infections with non-H. pylori Helicobacters were also observed in 67.5% of gastric biopsies using PCR, in concordance with rapid urease testing and cytology; however, no correlation between oral and gastric status was found [15]. In addition, a high prevalence (94.6%) of gastric Helicobacter

species was detected in 56 stray cats from Brazil; however, no correlation was observed between the presence of these gastric bacteria and histopathologic changes [16]. Another study performed in Brazilian pet cats, described a high prevalence (87%) of gastric Helicobacter spp. infection based on a Helicobacter genus-specific PCR and Warthin–Starry staining, with “H. heilmannii” being the most frequent species detected. While gastric Helicobacter Hedgehog antagonist spp. infection was not correlated with gastritis, it was associated with an increased epithelial proliferation and presence of lymphoid follicles [17]. According to the review by Haesebrouck et al. [12], the pathogenic significance of gastric helicobacters in cats and dogs may be related to the species or to differences within strains, although currently little is known about this issue. A wide-ranging culture-independent approach to investigate the spatial distribution of Helicobacter spp. in the gastrointestinal tract and hepatobiliary system of dogs was performed by Recordati et al. [18]. In this study, single and nested PCR for the genus

Helicobacter and for gastric and enterohepatic Helicobacter spp., 16S rDNA cloning and sequencing, immunohistochemistry, and fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) revealed that in addition to the stomach, which was colonized with multiple gastric Helicobacter Fossariinae spp. (H. bizzozeronii, Helicobacter felis and Helicobacter salomonis), the large intestine of dogs was abundantly co-infected with several enterohepatic Helicobacter spp. (H. bilis/flexispira taxon 8, H. cinaedi and H. canis) [18]. A review on the significance for human health of gastric helicobacters in domestic animals concluded that in particular pigs, cats, and dogs constitute reservoir hosts for gastric Helicobacter species with zoonotic potential, which could cause disease in humans [12]. These authors described the complex and confusing nomenclature used to designate non-H. pylori helicobacters and pointed out that “H. heilmannii” should not be used as a species name according to taxonomic rules [12].