PBMCs responded differently in vitro to iHg, methyl Hg (MeHg), or ethyl Hg (EtHg). Both iHg and MeHg increased pro-inflammatory cytokine release while EtHg decreased pro-inflammatory cytokine release. These results indicate that both organic and inorganic species of Hg can

affect the human immune system, though they may exert different influences on immune function. In vivo, we found that Hg-exposed gold-miners with increased levels of biomarkers of autoimmune dysfunction (serum titers of antinuclear or antinucleolar autoantibodies) had significantly higher serum Baf-A1 in vitro concentrations of the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1β, TNF-α, and IFN-γ as compared to a referent group of non-Hg exposed miners. Taken together, these results indicate consistent findings between in vitro and in vivo assessment of Hg immunotoxicity. Research supported by FNS-Brazil, Cure Autism Now, and NIEHS. “
“Cadmium (Cd) is a relatively rare toxic heavy metal and is found in the earths’ crust from 0.1 to 0.5 μg/g, and in the atmosphere from 0.1 to 5.0 ng/m3. Industrial activities, mainly zinc production and the use of Cd in pigments, plastic stabilizers, and batteries have significantly increased the amount of Cd in

the biosphere, and as a consequence Cd exposure of humans (The International Cadmium Association; www.cadmium.org). The major source for Cd uptake by (non-smoking) humans is food, and tobacco smoking approximately doubles the daily Cd uptake (ATSDR, 2009, Authority, 2009, Friberg and Dolutegravir clinical trial Nordberg, 1986 and Jarup

and Akesson, 2009). In the human body Cd has a half-life of 10–30 years and accumulates massively in organs like liver, kidney, and testes. Further, Abu-Hayyeh et al. demonstrated that also the vascular system is another target Sitaxentan organ for Cd deposition (Cd concentrations of up to 20 μM were observed in the aortic wall of heavy smokers) (Abu-Hayyeh et al., 2001, ATSDR, 2009, Satarug and Moore, 2004 and Staessen et al., 2001). In past decades the health threat of chronic low dose Cd exposure was underestimated. Accordingly, the European Food Safety Authority has reduced the provisional tolerable weekly intake from 7 μg/kg to 2.5 μg/kg in 2009 (Authority, 2011). Apart from the well known toxic effects of Cd on liver, kidneys and testis, the International Agency for Research on Cancer has classified Cd as a human carcinogen (Achanzar et al., 2001, Benbrahim-Tallaa et al., 2007, Benbrahim-Tallaa et al., 2009, CANCER, 1997, Joseph, 2009 and Waalkes, 2003), and recent studies, including ours, clearly indicate that Cd is also a significant risk factor for cardiovascular diseases (Messner et al., 2009 and Peters et al., 2010).