Transparency requires that information be communicated in a way that can be understood by the public. The need to be transparent with the public is often thought to be in tension with the need to protect the public from the harm in that transparency might result in a decline in vaccine uptake.

However, if public trust is damaged from a lack of transparency, vaccine uptake more broadly may be negatively impacted. Thus, there must be good reason for keeping safety and effectiveness information from Histone Methyltransferase inhibitor the public, for regulators’ mistrust of the public’s ability to understand information relating to vaccine safety may result in a reciprocal mistrust in regulators on the part MK-2206 research buy of the public [31] and [32]. Transparency with industry, however, around what vaccines may be undergoing further safety or effectiveness studies may compromise the independence (and therefore integrity) of such research [8]. The process of defining what constitutes a publicly-acceptable level of risk is a distinctly political responsibility and is one that is ultimately based on values and priorities. Because there can be small direct benefit to individuals due to a lower probability of contracting diseases where

herd immunity has been achieved, there is a low public tolerance for risks associated with vaccination [10]. There is a corresponding responsibility, therefore to maximize the safety and effectiveness of a vaccine [11]. A high safety threshold for vaccines must be maintained in order to achieve acceptable levels of public uptake, especially for non-therapeutic vaccines. In public health emergencies, the public may be more likely to accept vaccines that have less evidence of safety and efficacy [23], but more stringent monitoring is required by the need for proportionate monitoring. In addition, comparative effectiveness requires that the vaccine present a risk-benefit profile that is preferable to other preventive modalities [11]. How to determine what is publicly acceptable might in part be

a function of considering uptake levels, but in the case of compulsory vaccination this could be difficult, and requires careful attention to avoid the abuse of Thymidine kinase public health powers to compel individuals to be immunized. When public health agencies decide to put a population under surveillance or to conduct research on particular groups, it can potentially have a (re)stigmatizing effect on that population. Even though it may be less cost-effective, there may be circumstances where monitoring activities need to be less targeted in order to avoid the undue stigmatization of groups vulnerable to being singled out as different in some way [24]. This must be balanced with the need to collect enough detailed information to protect vulnerable groups from harm.